大學英語四級語法精要

Ⅰ動詞(時態,語態,用法,省略,一致性等)

時

1)現在完成進行時態 (have/has been + -ing 分詞構成): 動作或狀態從過去某時開始,繼續到現在,可能繼續下去,也可能剛剛結束.

I’ve been writing letters for an hour.

I’ve been sitting in the garden.

2)過去完成進行時(由had been + ing分詞構成): 過去某個時刻以前一直在進行的動作

I’d been working for some time when he called.

We had been waiting for her for two hours by the time she came.

3)將來完成進行時: 將來某個時刻以前一直在進行的動作.

By next summer, he will have been working here for twenty years.

In another month’s time she’ll have been studying here for three years.

4)將來完成時(由shall/will have + 過去分詞構成): 將來某時會業已發生的事.

I shall have finished this one before lunch.

They’ll have hit the year’s target by the end of October.

1. 語態

1) 可以有兩種被動結構的類型,例如:

He was said to be jealous of her success.

It was said that he was jealous of her success.

能同時適用于上述兩個句型的主動詞通常都是表示“估計”,“相信”等意義的動詞,常見的有assume,believe,expect,fear,feel,know,presume,report,say,suppose,understand等.

It is supposed that the ship has been sunk.

The ship is supposed to have been sunk.

擔當be supposed to 與不定式的一般形式搭配時往往表示不同的意義.例如:

Why are you driving so fast in this area? You are supposed to know the speed to know the speed limit. (你應該曉得速度限制)

2) 雙賓語及賓補結構的被動語態

a) 雙賓語結構的被動語態: 雙賓語結構變為被動語態時,可以把主動結構中的一個賓語變為主語,另一個賓語仍然保留在謂語后面,但多數是把間接賓語變為主語.

He was asked a number of questions at the press conference.

Two days were allowed them for making the necessary preparations.

b) 賓補結構的被動語態:

She was called Big Sister by everybody.

Then he was made a squad leader.

He was considered quite qualified for the job.

The room was always kept clean and tidy.

2. 短語動詞

1) Vi + adv

The plane took off two hours late.

2) Vi + prep

They looked round the Cathedral.

3) Vi + prep (有被動語態)

She’s looking after her sister’s children.

The children were always well looked after.

4) Vi + adv + prep

I began to look forward to their visits.

5) Vt + O + adv

Some women choose to stay at home and bring up their children.

The children were brought up by their mother.

They took him on.

6) Vt + adv + O (無被動語態)

I am trying to give up smoking.

7) Vt + O + prep

We talked Donald into agreement.

3. 省略

1) 在以as, than, when, if, unless等引導的從句中的省略: 在有些狀語從句中,如果謂語包含有動詞be,主語又和主句的主語一致a),或者主語是it b),就常常可以把從句中的主語和謂語的一部分(特別是動詞be)省略掉.

a) Look out for cars when crossing the street.

When taken according to the directions, the drug has no side effects.

While there he joined in voluntary labour on a project.

Although not yet six months old, she was able to walk without support.

If not well managed, irrigation can be harmful.

Though reduced in numbers, they gained in fighting capacity.

This viewpoint, however understandable, is wrong.

Enemies, once discovered, were tightly encircled and completely wiped out.

She hurriedly left the room as though/if angry.

She worked extremely hard though still rather poor in health.

Fill in the application as instructed.

Whenever known, such facts should be reported.

The documents will be returned as soon as signed.

He said that no acrobat could ever perform those daring feats unless trained very young.

Once having made a promise, you should keep it.

b) If necessary I’ll have the letter duplicated.

Fill in the blanks with articles where(ver) necessary.

If possible, I should like to have two copies of it.

As scheduled, they met on January 20 at the Chinese Embassy.

2) 在以than a) 或 as b) 引起的從句中,常會有一些成分省略.

a) He told me not to use more material than (it is) necessary.

We should think more of the collective than of ourselves.

b) They worked with as much enthusiasm as young people (did).

He is now a vice-manager, but still often works in the kitchen as before.

Their training is free, as is all education.

We will, as always, stand on your side.

3) 錯誤的省略

His life is as fully committed to books as anyone I know.

While standing there in her nightgown, two bullets struck the wall beside her.

4. 一致

1) 如果主語是單數,盡管后面跟有with, together with, as well as, as much as, no less than, more than等引導的短語,謂語動詞仍舊用單數形式.

Terry, along with her friend, goes skating every Saturday.

An expert, together with some assistants, was sent to help in this work.

The captain, as well as the coaches, was disappointed in the team.

2) 代詞作主語時的一致

a) each, either, neither和由some, any, no, every構成的復合代詞,都作單數看待.

Each of us has something to say.

Is everybody ready?

Somebody is using the phone.

Neither of us has gone through regular training.

Has either of them told you?

b) some, few, both, many 等作復數

c) some 可后接復數,也可接單數,表示某一.

none作復數看待時較多,但也有時作單數看待,主要看說話人腦中聯系想到的是復數還是單數概念, 但none 在代表不可數的東西時總是看作單數:

None of the books are easy enough for us

None of us seem to have thought of it.

None (= not a single one) of us has got a camera.

None (= nobody) has felt it more keenly than she did.

None of this worries me.

all 和most 可后接復數,也可接不可數名詞 (all of the…, most of the …), 動詞用單數.

3) 由and 或 both… and 連接名詞詞組時, 后用復數; 由not only…but (also), either…or, neither…nor或 or 連接的并列主語, 謂語通常和最鄰近的主語一致.

Not only the switches but also the old writing has been changed.

My sister or my brother is likely to be at home.

Either you or Mr Yang is to do the work.

Neither my wife nor I myself am able to persuade my daughter to change her mind.

如果一個句子是由there 或here引導, 而主語又不止一個, 謂語通常也和最鄰近的那個主語一致.

There was carved in the board a dragon and a phoenix.

Here is a pen, a few envelopes and some paper for you.

4) people, police, cattle, poultry (家禽), militia (民兵) 等通常都用作復數.

Cattle are grazing on the pasture.

The police are looking for him.

有些集體名詞有時作單數看待, 有時作復數看待, 主要根據意思來決定.

His family isn’t very large.

His family are all music lovers.

The committee meets twice a month.

The committee are divided in opinion.

The audience was enormous.

The audience were greatly moved at the words.

有些名詞單復數同形, 可根據意思決定謂語動詞的數:

This new series is beginning next month.

These new series are beginning next month.

This species is now extinct.

These species are now extinct.

5) 表示時間, 重量, 長度, 價值等的名詞, 盡管仍是復數形式, 如果作整體看待, 動詞也可用單數形式 (當然用復數動詞也是可以的):

Three weeks was allowed for making the necessary preparations.

One hundred li was covered in a single night.

6) 其他問題

a) 書名, 國家名用單數:

Tales from Shakespeare is a book by Charles Lamb.

b) 學科名, 如mathematics, economics用單數.

c) many a 或more than one 所修飾的詞作主語時, 謂語動詞多用單數形式:

Many a person has had that kind of experience.

More than one person has involved in the case.

a number of 后接復數, the number of后接單數:

A number of books have been published on the subject.

The number of books published on the subject is simply amazing.

d) one of those 后用單數. 在“one of + 復數名詞 +關系分句”結構中，關系分句中謂語動詞的單復數形式在一般情況下有兩形式，一是根據先行詞采用復數形式：

Joan is one of those people who go out of their way to be helpful.

當one 之前友the only 等限定詞和修飾語時，關系分句謂語動詞根據one 而定，即采用單數形式：

He is the only one of those boys who is willing to take on another assignment.

Ⅱ 非謂語動詞

1. 不定式

1) 形式

主動形式 被動形式

一般式 to do to be done

完成式 to have done to have been done

進行式 to be doing

完成進行式 to have been doing

a) 完成式: 不定式的一般形式所表示的動作, 通常與主要謂語表示的動作(狀態)同時(或幾乎同時)發生, 或是在它之后發生. 假如不定式所表示的動作, 在謂語所表示的動作(狀態)之前發生, 就要用不定式的完成式.

I am glad to have seen your mother (= I am glad I have seen your mother).

(比較: I am glad to see you.)

He is said to have written a new book about workers.

He pretended not to have seen me.

b) 進行式: 如果主要謂語表示的動作(狀態)發生時, 不定式表示的動作正在進行, 這時要用不定式的進行式.

You are not supposed to be working. You haven’t quite recovered yet.

We didn’t expect you to be waiting for us here.

He pretended to be listening attentively.

c) 完成進行式: 在謂語所表示的時間之前一直進行的動作, 就要用不定式的完成進行式.

The struggle was known to have been going for twenty years.

We are happy to have been working with you.

d) 被動式: 當不定式的邏輯上的主語是不定式所表示的動作的承受者時, 不定式一般要用被動形式.

It is an honour for me to be asked to speak here.

She hated to be flattered.

He wanted the letter to be typed at once.

This is bound to be found out.

There are a lot of things to be done.

She was too young to be assigned such work.

2) 功用: 不定式可以作主語 (a), 賓語 (b), 表語 (c), 定語 (d) 或是狀語 (e).

a. To scold her would not be just.

b. We are planning to build a reservoir here.

c. One of our main tasks now is to mechanize agriculture.

d. Do you have anything to declare?

e. We have come to learn from you.

3) 不帶to 的不定式:

a) 在“動詞+ 賓語+不定式”結構中, 如果動詞是表示感覺意義的see, hear, watch, smell, feel, notice等, 或是表示“致使”意義的 have, make, let等, 其后的不定式結構不帶to.

John made her tell him everything.

這類結構轉換為被動語態時, 后面的不帶to 的不定式一般還原為帶to 的不定式.

She was made to tell him everything.

b) 在 had better, had best, would rather, would sooner, would just as soon, might (just) as well, cannot but 等搭配之后, 動詞不定式也不帶to.

I’d rather not have eggs and bacon for breakfast.

They cannot but accept his term.

c) 在make do, make believe, let drop, let fall, let fly, let slip, let drive, let go of, let there be, hear say, hear tell, leave go of等固定搭配中, 用不帶to的動詞不定式.

John let fly a torrent of abuse at me.

I’ve heard tell of him.

d) 在動詞help(或help +賓語)之后可用不帶to的不定式, 也可用帶to的不定式.

Can I help (to) lift this heavy box?

e) 在介詞except, but 之后, 如果其前有動詞do的某種形式, 不定式一般不帶to, 反之帶to.

There is nothing to do except wait till it stops raining.

Smith will do anything but work on a farm.

There’s no choice but to wait till it stops raining.

f) 連詞 rather than, sooner than 置于句首時, 其后的不定式不帶to.

Rather than push the book back as he wanted to do, he forced himself to pick it up.

出現在句中其他位置時, 其后的不定式有時帶to, 有時不帶to.

He decided to write rather than telephone.

The manager believes it is important to invest in new machinery rather than to increase wages.

g) 用作補語的動詞不定式, 如果主語是由“all + 關系分句”，“thing +關系分句”，“what分句”或“thing +不定式結構”等構成，并帶有do的某種形式，這時，作為主語補語的不定式可以省to，也可以不省.

What he will do is (to) spoil the whole thing.

All you do now is complete the form

The only thing I can do now is go on by myself.

The thing to do now is clear up this mess.

The least I can do is drive everybody else closer to the issue.

4) 不定式的其他用法

a) too…to 結構通常表示否定意義:

She was too young to understand all that.

enough…to結構則表示肯定意義:

She was not old enough to understand all that.

not too, but too, all too, only too等和不定式連用時,不定式一般不表示否定意義:

He’s only too pleased to help her.

so…as (to)這種結構也可用不定式作狀語:

Be so kind as to drop in some time when you are free.

b) 如果要說明不定是表示的動作是誰做的, 可以在不定式前加一個for引起的短語:

It is not hard for one to do a bit of good.

It is a great honour for us to be present at this rally.

在以某些形容詞(如 kind, good, nice, wise, unwise, clever, silly, wrong, right, foolish, stupid, careless, considerate, rude, naughty, impolite等)作表語時, 不定式前可加一個of引起的短語, 來說明不定式指的是誰的情況:

It’s kind of you to think so much of us.

(It is) Awfully good of you to come and meet us.

It’s very nice of you to be so considerate.

It’s unwise of them to turn down the proposal.

2. V+ing形式(現在分詞及動名詞)

1) 形式

a) 完成式: 如果要表示動名詞代表的動作在謂語所表示的動作之前發生, 通常用動名詞的完成形式.

He didn’t mention having met me.

I regret not having taken her advice.

在某些動詞后(或成語中), 常用(或可以用)動名詞的一般形式, 盡管動作是在謂語所表示的動作之前發生的.

Excuse me for coming late.

I don’t remember ever seeing him anywhere.

現在分詞的完成式主要用在狀語中, 表示這動作在謂語所表示的動作之前發生.

Having been there many times, he offered to be our guide.

Having found the cause, they were able to propose a remedy.

另外, 獨立結構也可用現在分詞的完成形式.

The guests having left, they resumed their discussion.

The children, having eating their fill, were allowed to leave the table.

b) 被動式: 當一個動名詞邏輯上的主語所表示的是這動作的對象時, 動名詞一般要用被動形式.

His being neglected by the host added to his uneasiness.

He couldn’t bear being made fun of like that.

但要注意, 在want, need, deserve, require 等動詞后, 盡管表示的是被動的意思, 卻用動名詞的主動形式.

My pen needs filling.

The point deserves mentioning.

This problem requires studying with great care.

在worth這個形容詞后情形也是這樣.

Her method is worth trying.

現在分詞的被動式可以用來作定語, 賓語補足語, 狀語及用于獨立結構中.

This is one of the experiments being carried on in our laboratory.

You’ll find the topic being discussed everywhere.

Being asked to give a performance, she couldn’t very well refuse.

These are sold at reduced prices, the defects always being pointed out to the customers.

c) 完成被動式: 如果表示的動作在謂語表示的動作之前發生, 有時需要用動名詞的完成被動式.

I don’t remember having ever been given a chance to try this method.

但在多數情況下都避免使用這一形式, 而用一般被動形式代替, 以免句子顯得累贅.

現在分詞的完成被動式一般用來作狀語或用于獨立結構中.

Having been given such a good chance, how could she let it slip away?

The decision having been made, the next problem was how to make a good plan.

All the compositions having been written and collected, the teacher sent the students home.

2) 句法功用

a) 作主語:

Walking is good exercise.

It’s nice talking to you.

There is no denying the fact that the new method has greatly raised labour productivity.

b) 作賓語:

Your shoes need polishing.

You mustn’t delay sending the tractors over.

He avoided giving us a definite answer.

c) 作介詞賓語: 動名詞作介詞賓語用的時候最多. 它常可以用在某些成語后面, 常見的有: insist on, persist in, think of, dream of, object to, suspect…of, accuse…of, charge…with, hear of, approve of, prevent…from, keep…from, stop…from, refrain from, be engaged in, look forward to, opposed to, depend on, thank…for, feel like, excuse…for, aim at, devote…to, set about, spend…in, get (be) used to, be fond of, be capable of, be afraid of, be tired of, be sick of, succeed in, be interested in, feel (be) ashamed of, be proud of, be keen on, be responsible for.

d) 作表語:

The real problem is getting to know the needs of the people.

動名詞和不定式都可以作主語或表語. 一般說來, 在表示抽象的一般的行為時多用動名詞; 在表示具體某詞動作, 特別是將來的動作時, 多用不定式.

e) 作賓語補足語: 分詞可以在see, hear, notice, watch, feel, find, keep, get, have等動詞后作賓語補足語.

The words immediately set us all laughing.

Once we caught him dozing off in class.

His remark left me wondering what he was driving at.

在see, hear, feel, watch, notice等動詞后, 及可用現在分詞, 也可用不定式構成賓語補足語. 用現在分詞時, 表示動作正在發生, 用不定式時表示動作發生了.

Do you hear someone knocking at the door?

Yes, I did. I heard him knock three times.

f) 作狀語: 現在分詞作狀語時, 通常都表示主語正在進行的另一動作, 來對謂語表示的主要動作加以修飾或作為陪襯.

I ran out of the house shouting.

I got home, feeling very tired.

Driving to Chicago that night, I was struck by a sudden thought.

現在分詞短語有時可以用作狀語表示原因, 相當于一個表示原因的狀語從句.

Not knowing her address, we couldn’t get in touch with her.

Seeing nobody at home, she decided to leave them a note.

Having already seen the film twice, she didn’t want to go to the cinema.

現在分詞短語有時可用作時間狀語, 相當于when引起的從句:

Seeing those pictures, he couldn’t help thinking of those memorable days they spent together.

如果兩個動作是完全同時發生的, 多用when 或while加分詞這種結構.

Be careful when crossing the street.

When leaving the airport, they waved again and again to us.

She got to know them while attending a conference in Beijing.

3) 前面帶有代詞或名詞的動名詞結構: 一個動名詞前面可以加一個物主代詞(或名詞的所有格結構), 來表示這個動名詞邏輯上的主語.

Their coming to help was a great encouragement to us.

Our sole worry is your relying too much on yourself.

Do you mind my reading your paper?

They insisted on my staying there for supper.

如果不是在句子開頭, 這個結構常常可以用名詞的普通格(或人稱代詞賓格), 這比用所有格更自然一些.

I don’t mind him going.

She hates people losing their temper.

4) 只能用動名詞作賓語的動詞: suggest, finish, avoid, stop, can’t help, mind, admit, enjoy, leave off, require, postpone, put off, delay, practise, fancy, excuse, pardon, advise, consider, deny, endure, escape, miss

5) 既可用動名詞, 也可用不定式作賓語的動詞: love, like, hate, dislike, begin, start, continue, intend, attempt, can’t bear, propose, want, need, remember, forget, regret, neglect, try, deserve, can’t afford等.

有時兩種結構之間意義差別不大, 有時卻有不同的意思. 在remember, regret, want, try等詞后差別是比較明顯的.

I remember seeing her once somewhere.

I must remember to take my notebooks with me.

I regret not having accepted your advice.

I regret to say I haven’t given you enough help.

She doesn’t want (need) to come.

The house wants (needs) cleaning.

We must try to get everything done in time.

Let’s try doing the work some other way.

6) 懸垂修飾: 分詞作狀語時, 表示的必須是主語的一個動作或狀態.

Walking through the park, we saw a lot of flowers. (walking是we的動作, 正確)

Walking through the park, the flowers looked very beautiful. (錯誤)

Standing on the tower, we could see the whole city. (正確)

Standing on the tower, the whole village could be seen. (錯誤)

3. 分詞

1) 意義: 過去分詞通常來自及物動詞, 帶有被動意義和完成意義; 而現在分詞有的來自及物動詞, 有的來自不及物動詞, 通常帶有主動意義和未完成意義.

frozen food a freezing wind

a bored traveller a boring journey

a lost cause a losing battle

a conquered army a conquering army

a finished article the last finishing touch

the spoken word a speaking bird

a closed shop the closing hour

a recorded talk a recording machine

來自不及物動詞的過去分詞很少能單獨用作前置修飾語, 能作這樣用的僅限于下面幾個詞, 僅表示完成意義, 不表示被動意義.

the risen sun, fallen leaves, faded/withered flowers, returned students, retired workers, departed friends, escaped prisoners, the vanished jewels, newly-arrived visitors

用作后置修飾語的過去分詞一般都帶有修飾語或其他成分, 在意義上相當于關系分句.

Most of the people invited to the reception were old friends.

2) 句法作用

a) 作定語: distinguished guest 貴賓, unknown heroes 無名英雄, armed forces武裝部隊, canned food罐頭食品, boiled water開水, steamed bread饅頭, stricken area災區

分詞還可構成合成詞作定語: simply-furnished room陳設簡單的房間, clear-cut answer明確的答復, highly-developed industry高度發展的工業, heartfelt thanks衷心的感謝, hand-made goods手工制品, man-made satellite人造衛星

b) 作補足語: 可以帶過去分詞作賓語補足語的動詞有:

see, hear, feel, find, think等表示感覺和心理狀態的動詞.

I saw the students assembled in the hall.

We found her greatly changed.

make, get, have, keep等表示”致使”意義的動詞:

I have my hair cut every ten days.

She got her bad tooth pulled out.

Please keep us informed of the latest developments.

like, want, wish, order等表示希望, 要求, 命令等意義的動詞:

I don’t want any of you (to be) involved in the scandal.

He won’t like such questions (to be) discussed at the meeting.

c) 過去分詞短語常用作狀語, 修飾謂語, 很多都說明動作發生的背景或情況.

Guided by these principles, they went on with the work,

Delighted with her work, they made her the general manager.

過去分詞短語也可作狀語表示原因, 相當于一個表示原因的狀語從句.

Influenced by his example, they performed countless good deeds.

有時也可說明動作發生的時間, 相當于一個表示時間的狀語從句.

This method, tried in areas near Shanghai, resulted in a marked rise in total production.

間或也可表示一個假設的情況, 相當于一個條件從句.

Given closer analysis, we can see this is totally wrong.

偶爾也可用來代替一個“讓步”狀語從句.

Picked 20 years a year, it grows tired only after 40 or 50 years.

d) 獨立結構: 在用分詞短語作狀語時, 它邏輯上的主語一般必須與句子的主語一.致. 但有時它也可以有自己獨立的邏輯上的主語, 這種結構稱為獨立結構, 一般表示一種伴隨的動作或情況.

He rushed into the room, his face covered with sweat.

有時可以表示時間:

Late that autumn, his work finished, he prepared to return to his institute.

表示原因:

Her eyes dimmed with tears, she did not see him enter.

條件:

All things considered, her paper is of greater value than yours.

Ⅲ 虛擬語氣

1. that從居中:

1) wish, would rather (sooner), had better:

I wish I were as strong as you.

I wish I had paid more attention to our pronunciation.

I wish I remembered the address.

I would rather they came tomorrow (you had gone there too).

I had rather (that) you told him than I did.

2) suggest, order, demand, propose, command, request, desire, insist 等動詞后的賓語從句:

The commander ordered that all civilians (should) be evacuated.

He asked that he be given an opportunity to try.

She urged that he write and accept the post.

3) it is desired, it is suggested, it is requested, it was ordered, it was proposed, it is necessary, it is important, it has been decided 等結構后的主語從句中.

It was arranged that they leave the following week

It will be better that we meet some other time.

4) suggestion, motion, proposal, order, recommendations, plan, idea等后面的表語從句和同位語從句:

His sole requirement is (was) that thy system be adjusted.

2. 在某些句型中

1) it is time that

It is time that we went (或should go) to bed.

It is high time we (should) put an end to this controversy.

2) as if (though) 引起的從句:

They talked (are talking) as if they had been friends for years.

It seems as if it was (were) spring today.

He acts (acted) as if (though) he were (was) an expert.

3) 以lest, for fear that 和 in case 引起的從句(這時謂語多用 should +動詞原形):

He took his raincoat with him lest it should rain.

He put his coat over the child for fear that (或lest) he should catch cold.

I’ll keep a seat for you in case you should need it.

4) 以whatever, whoever, no matter what這類代詞或詞組引起的從句(這時, 謂語多用may加動詞原形構成):

Whatever defects he may have, he is an honest man.

Come what may, we will go ahead. 不管發生什么情況, 我們都要干下去.

I accept that he is old and frail; be that as it may, he’s still a good politician.

我承認他年老體衰, 然而盡管如此, 它仍是優秀的政治家.

3. 條件句

1) 虛擬條件句主要有下面兩類:

a) 表示現在及將來情況(表示純然假設或實現的可能性不大的情況):

謂語主要形式如下(be多用were這個形式):

從句 主句

過去式 would + 動詞原形

If I were you, I wouldn’t lose heart.

How nice it would be if you could stay a bit longer.

b) 表示過去情況的虛擬條件句(與事實完全相反的假設情況), 謂語主要形式如下:

從句 主句

had + 過去分詞 would have + 過去分詞

She would have come if we had invited her.

If I hadn’t taken your advice, I would have made a bad mistake,

You wouldn’t have caught cold if you had put on more clothes.

2) 有時候, 條件從句表示的動作和主句表示的動作, 發生的時間是不一致的(如一個是過去發生的, 一個是現在發生的). 這時, 動詞的形式要根據表示的時間來調整. 這種句子可以稱為錯綜時間條件句.

If he had received six more votes, he would be our chairman now.

If we hadn’t got everything ready by now, we should be having a terrible time tomorrow.

3) 有時假設的情況并不以條件從句表示, 而是通過一個介詞短語來表示.

Without music, the world would be a dull place.

We could have done better under more favorable conditions.

That would have been considered miraculous in the past.

But for the storm, we should have arrived earlier.

4) 如果條件句從句中包含有 were, had, should 或could, 有時可把if省略掉, 并把were, had, should或could放在主語前面.

Had we made adequate preparation, we might have succeeded.

Should there be a flood, what should we do?

Were it not for their assistance, we would be in serious difficulty.

Ⅳ 介詞

1. 合成介詞和復雜介詞

1) 合成介詞: inside, into, onto, out of, outside, throughout, upon within, without

2) 復雜介詞: according to, along with, apart from, as for, as to, because of, by means of, in front of, in spite of, instead of, in accordance with, on account of, on behalf of, owing to, due to, together with, up to, with regard to, prior to等

2. 介詞在句末:

This is what he is interested in.

Does everyone has a seat to sit on?

3. 名詞加介詞 ( n + prep)

1) 某些名詞之后要求用某些介詞: solution to, faith in, glance at, need for

2) 某些名詞之前要求用某些介詞: on one’s guard, at one’s request, in all probability, to my delight

4. 動詞加介詞

1) Vi + prep: prevail on, appeal to, fall into, apply for, touch upon

2) Vt + O + prep: lay emphasis on, take advantage of等

3) Vi + adv + prep:

I don’t wish to break in on your thoughts.

The family came up against fresh problems.

You’re not telling me the whole story. You’re holding out on me.

She got off with him soon after she began to work at the institution.

4) Vt + O + adv +prep:

You shouldn’t take your resentment out on me.

We shouldn’t put the shortage down to bad planning.

5. 形容詞加介詞

about --- anxious, careful, careless, certain, considerate, enthusiastic, guilty, happy, mad, particular, sad, sure, timid, unhappy, etc

at --- awkward, bad, clever, disappointed, disgusted, good, marvellous, quick, skilful, skilled, useless, weak, etc

for --- convenient, eligible, grateful, homesick, hungry, necessary, noted, perfect, responsible, etc

from --- evident, exempt, inseparable, safe, tired, etc

in --- deficient, expert, liberal, quick, rich, successful, weak, etc

of --- apprehensive, characteristic, critical, destructive, envious, hard, inconsiderate, impatient, dependent, jealous, positive, scared, sensible, short, sick, suspicious, typical, worthy, etc

on --- dependent, keen, intent, etc

to --- acceptable, accessible, agreeable, alive, attentive, blind, comparable, courteous, deaf, destructive, essential, favourable, hostile, indifferent, married, obedient, parallel, preferable, related, responsible, sensitive, suitable, unjust, etc

with --- awkward, bored, careful, disappointed, generous, identical, ill, impatient, popular, sick, wrong, etc

Ⅴ 連詞

1. 并列連詞

1) 表示意義的引申: and, both…and, not only…but(also), as well as, and …as well, neither…nor

2) 表示選擇: or, either…or

3) 表示轉折: but, while, whereas, yet, however/nevertheless(也可認為是副詞)

4) 表示因果: for, so, therefore, hence

2. 從屬連詞

1) 表示時間: when, while, as, after, before, since, until(till), as soon as, once

2) 表示原因: because, as, since, now that, seeing that

3) 表示條件: if, unless, in case, provided(that), suppose, as long as, on condition (that),

4) 表示其他關系: (al)though, than, as/so…as, lest, in order that, so…that

Ⅵ 定語從句

1. 限制和非限制性定語從句: 限制性定語從句是名詞詞組不可缺少的一個組成部分, 去掉了會造成病句或意義不明確; 非限制性定語從句屬于補充說明性質, 去掉了不會影響主要意義, 通常用逗號與它的先行詞分開.

The boys who wanted to play football were disappointed when it rained.

The boys, who wanted to play football, were disappointed when it rained.

如果定語從句的先行詞是專有名詞, 或是帶有形容詞性物主代詞(my, his, etc)或形容詞性指示代詞(this, that, etc)作限定詞, 其后的定語從句通常都是非限制性的:

Mary Smith, who is in the corner, wants to meet you.

Her mother, who had long suffered form arthritis, died last night.

All these books, which have been donated by visiting professors, are to be used by the postgraduates.

在非限制性定語從句中只能用who/whom指人, 用which指物,通常不用that替代.

My father, who had been on a visit to America, returned yesterday.

All the books, which had pictures in them, were sent to the little girl.

2. 定語從句的引導詞

1) that, who, whom: 非限制性定語從句, 如果修飾人, 一般用who, 有時用that (作主語時用who較多). 如果關系代詞在從句中作賓語, 就應當用賓格 whom 或that, 但在大多數情況下都可以省略掉, 在口語中可用who代替whom.

Here is the man (whom) you’ve been looking for.

He is a man (that) you can safely depend on.

The people (who/that) you were talking to were Swedes.

There are some people here who I want you to meet.

但在介詞后只能用whom:

This is the man to whom I referred.

但在口語中一般都把介詞放到句子后面去, 這時可用that, 但省略時更多一些.

Have you met the person about whom he was speaking?

Have you met the person (that) he was speaking about

The girl to whom I spoke is my cousin.

The girl (who/that) I spoke to is my cousin.

2) 限制性定語從句如果修飾“物”, 用關系代詞that的時候較多, 也有時用which.. 當這個代詞在從句中是用作賓語時, 在絕大多數情況下都是省略的, 特別是口語中(尤其是當被修飾的詞是all, everything等詞時):

Have you everything you need?

(Is there) anything I can do for you?

All you have to do is to press the button.

在介詞后只能用which, 在口語中一般都把介詞放到從句后部去, 這時可以用that, 但省略的時候更多一些:

The tool with which he is working is called a wrench.

The tool (that) he is working with is called a wrench.

This is the question about which we’ve had so much discussion.

This is the question (that) we’ve had so much discussion about.

定語從句一般是修飾名詞或代詞的, 但間或也可以修飾整個句子a), 或是句子的一部分 b), 引導詞用which:

a) They have invited me to visit their country, which is very kind of them.

The activity was postponed, which was exactly what we wanted

b) When deeply absorbed in work, which he often was, he would forget all about eating and sleeping.

She was very patient towards the children, which her husband seldom was.

3) whose: 在表示“...的”這個概念時, 可用所有格 whose; whose 用于指物, 有時可與of which交替使用, 通常的詞序是 名詞詞組 + of which:

Is there anyone in your class whose family is in the northeast?

We had a meeting whose purpose was completely unclear. (…the purpose of which was…)

He’s written a book the name of which I’ve completely forgotten. (…whose name I’ve…)

of which前的名詞詞組也可以由some, any, none, all, both, several, enough, many, most, few以及基數詞擔任; 這些詞也能用在 of whom之前.

The buses, most of which were already full, were surrounded by an angry crowd.

It’s a family of eight children, all of whom are studying music.

4) 關系副詞 when, where, why: 它們的含義相當于 at which, in which, for which, 因此它們之間有交替使用的可能.

The day when he was born…

on which he was born…

which he was born on…

The office where he works…

at which he works…

which he works at…

有時可用that替代關系副詞, 在口語中that 可省略.

Every time (that) the telephone rings, he gets nervous.

This was the first time I had serious trouble with my boss.

Do you know anywhere (that) I can get a drink?

This is the place (where) we met yesterday.

That is the reason (why) he did it.

在the way 后也可用that 替代in which, 在口語中that也可省略.

This is the way (that/in which) he did it.

That’s the way I look at it.

3. 如果定語從句中謂語為 there is, 作主語的關系代詞也常可省掉:

I must make full use of the time there is left to me and do as much as I can for the people.

This is the fastest train (that) there is to Nanjing.

4. 定語從句的簡化: 定語從句與不定式結構, -ing分詞結構, -ed分詞結構以及無動詞分句等有著轉換關系.

He was the only one to realize the danger (= who realized the danger).

The woman driving the car (= who was driving the car) indicated that she was going to turn left.

The man injured by the bullet (= who was injured by the bullet) was taken to hospital.

All the women present (= who were present) looked up in alarm.

Ⅶ 倒裝

1. 全部倒裝和部分倒裝: 如果謂語在主語前面, 就是倒裝語序. 倒裝語序又分為全部倒裝和部分倒裝. 在全部倒裝的句子中, 整個謂語都放在主語的前面:

Here are some registered letters for you.

In came a man with a white beard.

在部分倒裝的句子中只是謂語中的一部分(如助動詞, 情態動詞, 或系動詞be等)放在主語前面, 其余部分仍在主語后面:

Under no circumstances must a soldier leave his post.

I couldn’t answer the question. Nor could anyone else in our class.

Only in this way is it possible to accomplish the above-mentioned glorious task.

2. 以neither, nor, so等開始的句子: 由so引起的表示前面所說情況也適用于另一人(或東西)的句子(肯定句), 由neither, nor引起的表示前面所說情況也適用于另一人(或東西)的句子(否定句), 助動詞或be置于主語前.

“We must start for the work-site now”. “ So must we.”

I am quite willing to help and so are the others.

He didn’t drop any hint. Nor (Neither) did his secretary.

“I won’t do such a thing.” “Nor (Neither) will I.”

如果一個句子只是重復前面一句話的意思, 盡管是用so開頭, 語序也不要顛倒.

“It was cold yesterday.” “So it was.”

“Tomorrow will be Monday.” “So it will.”

3. 當句首狀語為 never, little, not only, not until, hardly, scarcely等否定詞或有否定意義的詞語時, 一般引起部分倒裝.

No longer are they staying with us.

No sooner had he arrived there than he fell ill.

Under no circumstances could I agree to such a principle.

4. 表示位置或方向的副詞提前, 謂語動詞為 go, come等表示位置轉移的動作動詞而主語又較長時, 通常用全部倒裝:

There was a sudden gust of wind and away went his hat.

The door burst open and I rushed the crowd.

There comes the bus!

Now comes your turn.

如果主語是代詞, 仍用正常語序:

There comes your turn.

有here引起, 謂語為be的句子, 也要倒裝:

Here is China’s largest tropical forest.

Here are some picture-books.

如果主語是代詞, 仍用正常語序:

Here we are. This is the new railway station.

“Give me some paper.” “Here you are.”

5. 表語和系動詞提前:

a) 介詞短語: On the other side was northern Xinjiang.

Near the southern end of the village was a large pear orchard.

b) 形容詞: Very important in the farmer’s life is the radio weather report.

Worst of all were the humiliations he suffered.

c) 副詞: Below is a restaurant.

Southwest of the reservoir were 2,000 acres of sandy wasteland.

d) 分詞: Housed in the Cultural Palace are a library, an auditorium and recreation rooms.

Hidden underground is a wealth of gold, silver, copper, lead and zink.

Lying on the floor was a boy aged about 17.

Standing beside the table was an interpreter.

6) 句首狀語若由 only + 副詞, only + 介詞詞組, only + 狀語從句構成, 引起局部倒裝:

Only yesterday did he find out that his watch was missing.

Only through sheer luck did he manage to get some tickets.

Only because there were some cancelled bookings did he get some tickets in the end.

有not only開頭的句子或分句, 往往引起局部倒裝:

Not only did he complain about the food, he also refused to pay for it.

Not only did the garage overcharge me, but they hadn’t done a very good repair job either.

Ⅷ 比較級和最高級

1. 無比較級和最高級的形容詞及副詞: complete, perfect, utter, etc

2. 比較從句

1) as…as, almost/just/nearly as…as, not so/as …as:

We’ll give you as much help as we can.

I haven’t made as much progress as I should.

We’ve produced twice as much cotton this year as we did ten years ago.

My command of English is not half so (as) good as yours.

2) than, so much/a lot more than, no more… than, not more…than, less than

more…than, less…than可表示“與其說…不如說…”:

He is more good than bad.

He was less hurt than frightened.

The present crisis in capitalist countries is much more a political than an economic crisis.

“no + 形容詞或副詞比較級 + than”所表示的可以是該形容詞或副詞的相反的含義:

no rich than = as poor as

no bigger than = as small as

no later than = as early as

John is no better than Tom.

I have taken no more than six courses this semester.

3) the more… the more (越是…就越…)

Actually, the busier he is, the happier he feels.

The more they talked, the more encouraged they felt.

4) more of a, as much of a, less of a, etc: 當as much of a…as, more/less of a …than等結構與單數可數名詞搭配時, 名詞只能置于比較結構中間.

He is more of a sportsman than his brother.

Ⅸ 名詞性從句: 名詞性從句包括主語從句, 賓語從句, 表語從句, 同位語從句.

1. 主語從句有三類:

a) 由what等代詞引導的主語從句: what表示“…所…的(東西)”, 在結構上等于一個名詞加一個定語從句; whatever表示“所…的一切”; whoever表示“一切…的人”.

What you need is more practice

What is hard is to do good all one’s life and never do anything bad.

Whatever was said here must be kept secret.

Whatever I have is at your service.

Whoever comes will be welcome.

Whoever fails to see this will make a big blunder.

b) 由連詞that引起的主語從句: 這類主語從句在大多數情況下都放到句子后部去, 而用代詞it做形式上的主語:

That we need more equipment is quite obvious.

It is impossible that I may not able to come.

It doesn’t seem likely that she will be here.

在口語中連詞that有時可以省略掉:

It’s good you’re so considerate.

It’s a pity you missed such a fine talk.

c) 由連接代詞或連接副詞(或whether)引起的主語從句: 這類主語從句, 也可以放到句子后部去, 前面用it做形式上的主語.

When we shall have our sports meet is still a question.

It is still a question when we shall have our sports meet.

Whether he will join us won’t make too much difference.

It won’t make too much difference whether he will join us.

2賓語從句: 和主語從句及表語從句一樣, 賓語從句也有以上三類.

a) 連接代詞或副詞引導的從句只是在某些動詞后能用作賓語.

Tell me what you want.

I just can’t imagine how he could have done such a thing.

Have you decided whom you are to nominate as your candidate.

能跟這類賓語從句的常見動詞有: see, say, tell, ask, answer, know, decide, find out, imagine, suggest, doubt, wonder, show, discover, discuss, understand, inform, advise等. 這種動詞后也常用whether或if引導的從與作賓語:

I don’t know whether these figure are accurate.

I’m wondering if the letter is overweight.

這種從句有時前面可以有另一個賓語:

Has she informed you when they are to hold the meeting?

Please advise me which book I should read first.

有時這種從句也可用作及詞的賓語:

Whether that is a good solution depends on how you look at it.

He was not conscious of what an important discovery he had made.

I was curious as to what he would say next.

b) 用that引導的從句作賓語的情形最為普遍, 在很多動詞如boast, say, think, insist, wish, hope, suppose, see, believe, agree, acknowledge, admit, deny, expect, explain, confess, order, command, suspect, dream, suggest, propose, know, mean, notice, prefer, request, require, report, urge, 以及doubt的否定和疑問式后面都可以用它.

Ⅹ 情態動詞:

1. may/might表示允許和可能:

a) 允許: 詢問或說明一件事可不可以做.

May I trouble you with a question?

You may take this seat if you like.

He asked if he might glance through my album.

You might as well speak your mind. (比may…顯得婉轉一些)

b) 可能: 表示一件事或許發生(或是某種情況可能會存在).

You may walk ten miles without seeing a house.

She was afraid they might not like the idea.

A bad thing might be turned to good account.

c) might 表示請求:

Might I ask for a photograph of your baby? (比May I …更客氣一些)

2. can’t, couldn’t表示否定的推測:

She can’t be serious.

A more suitable book can’t be found. (It is not possible to find a more suitable book.)

He couldn’t (can’t) be over fifty.

3. should, ought to: 表示應該做的事, ought to比should口氣稍重一些.

You should (ought to) do as he says.

You shouldn’t (oughtn’t to) talk like that.

但這兩者間也有一些差別, 在表示責任, 義務等該做的事情時, 常用ought to, 在表示某件事宜于做時, 多用should, 在下面的句子中這兩個詞就不宜換用:

You are his father. You ought to take care of him.

We should not use too many big words in our everyday speech.

4. will, would

5. shall, should表示意愿

6. 情態動詞后接進行式, 完成式和完成進行式:

a) 情態動詞可以和動詞的進行式構成謂語, 表示”應該正在…”, “想必正在…”這類意思:

Why should we be sitting here doing nothing?

This isn’t what I ought to be doing.

She might still be thinking about the question you raised.

They must (may) be waiting for us, let’s hurry up.

They can’t be using the room now.

b) 情態動詞有時和動詞的完成形式構成謂語, 表示”應當已經…”, “想必已經…”這類意思:

I should have thought of that.

They shouldn’t have left so soon.

She must have arrived by now.

You needn’t have told them that.

Where can (could) he have gone?

He can’t have finished the work so soon.

He may not have achieved all his aims. But his effort is praise-

worthy.

We ought to have give you more help.

c) 情態動詞間或也可以和一個動詞的完成進行式構成謂語,表示”應當一直在…”, “想必一直在…”這類意思:

They are sweating all over. They must have been working in the fields.

They may have been discussing the problem this morning.

You should have been waiting for us. Why haven’t you?

She couldn’t have been swimming all day.